Juno Spacecraft

There have been many theories about the origins of the planets in our solar system, but thus far no conclusive proof. Scientists now believe Jupiter holds many valuable clues since it is the largest of the planets and has an abundance of water, hydrogen and helium. To that end, a spacecraft named Juno will be placed in a highly elliptical polar orbit to study Jupiter’s interior structures, deep atmosphere and polar magnetosphere. Originally slated for launch in June of this year, the project has been postponed to August, 2011 due to budget restrictions. The satellite will hopefully provide clues as to how Jupiter was formed by studying its intense magnetic field, water and ammonia clouds in the atmosphere, its aurora borealis and whether or not it has an ice-rock core. This will give scientists critical information as to the processes that formed our entire solar system. Juno will also relay information regarding the planet’s strong winds, known to reach speeds of 600 km per hour.

According to Scott Bolton, Juno’s principal investigator from the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas, “Jupiter is the archetype of giant planets in our solar system and formed very early, capturing most of the material left after the sun formed. Unlike Earth, Jupiter’s giant mass allowed it to hold onto its original composition, providing us with a way of tracing our solar system’s history.”

The spinning, solar-powered spacecraft will enter into Jupiter’s orbit around the year 2016. Skimming only 5,000 km above the planet, its infrared and microwave instruments will then begin to measure thermal radiation being emitted from deep within Jupiter’s atmosphere. By calculating the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen to determine the amount of water on Jupiter, it is hoped this will provide proof as to how the planet was formed. Other goals for the project include:

• Obtaining more precise measurements of Jupiter’s core mass
• Exploring the three dimensional structure of Jupiter’s polar magnetosphere and its auroras
• Mapping Jupiter’s gravity and magnetic fields to measure the distribution of mass in Jupiter’s interior
• Using microwave radiometers that will detect thermal radiation from deep atmospheric layers
• Mapping the variations in atmospheric composition, temperature and structure

It is believed that water ice brought in most of the other heavy elements to Jupiter. Once it is determined what the original form of that ice was, scientists plan to define the conditions that created the first clouds of dust and gases that led to the formation of Jupiter as well as all the other planets. Since Jupiter contains most of the water in our entire solar system, it is hoped it will provide clues as to the origin of water on Earth as well.

If all goes according to schedule, the Juno mission will finish in 2018 after 32 orbits around Jupiter, covering 3,000 miles over the planet’s clouds. It will be the first solar powered spacecraft to operate so far from the sun, approximately 400 million miles.

The International Space Station

The ISS is one of the most exciting developments in the history of the worldwide space program, and it holds much promise for research and collaboration in the future. Rather than competing with each other to be the “first,” the space station has been a joint project with Russia, Japan, Canada, Brazil and at least ten European countries. Astronauts and scientists from these nations have been working to build this research facility since 1998. The scheduled completion date is 2011 and it is planned to remain in operation through 2016 if not longer.

The International Space station is the largest artificial satellite in the low Earth orbit that can be seen by the naked eye. It travels approximately 350 kilometers above the Earth’s surface at an average speed of 1,210 miles per hour, completing 15.7 orbits per day.

The main purpose of the ISS is to conduct experiments that require the environment found in outer space. The fields of research being investigated include biology, physics, astronomy and meteorology. NASA built and launched the Destiny laboratory in 2001 that is now the main research facility, and it includes a 20 inch, optically perfect window, which is the largest ever produced for outer space.

A main goal for the research is to better understand the effects of spending an extensive amount of time in space on the human body. Scientists are looking at muscle atrophy, bone loss and fluid shifts so that astronauts will be able to avoid bone fractures and movement problems as they explore extraterrestrial planets far from our own galaxy. They are also studying the effects of zero gravity environments on plants and animals, and are developing hardware that can withstand the years of travel through space that will be required in order to reach far away planets.

In addition, physics researchers are very interested in studying combustion in space and the possibility of creating by-products that could produce energy. Scientists will also examine gases in the Earth’s atmosphere including ozone, aerosols, and oxides as well as cosmic rays and dust.

NASA Administrator Michael Griffin believes the ISS in an integral component to NASA’s future plans to go beyond Earth’s orbit for future space exploration and even colonization. “The International Space Station is now a stepping stone along the way, rather than being the end of the line,” says Griffin.

The International Space Station is an important step in expanding the human presence in space.  It is a habitat for the crew, a port for smaller vehicles, and a laboratory.  On it, crew members from around the world have conducted research on the long-term effects of space travel on humans, gained valuable knowledge on microgravity construction, life support, robotics, and plant life.  From it they have observed the universe and Earth.

Currently two vehicles can dock with the station and return to Earth, the Soyuz and the Space Shuttle.  Unlike the original Soyuz from the mid 1960s, the modern version can accommodate differently sized crewmembers, has an improved landing system and contains digital electronic controls and displays.  One Soyuz rocket is always docked to the ISS as an escape pod. In late summer 2009 a second Soyuz will be docked to the station which will allow a full-time crew of six to be evacuated at any time. The United States Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour have brought the larger construction payloads to the ISS and facilitated crew rotation.

The shuttle is re-supplied via the Progress rocket, from Russia, and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV).   These are designed to berth with the space station and supply dry cargo, atmospheric air, water and propellant.  These rockets can also take away trash and waste product.  The rocket and cargo is incinerated during reentry.  A similar rocket, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), is scheduled to launch in September 2009.

In the future the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) from NASA may be used to reach the ISS. NASA has named SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation as commercial providers of launch and return logistics services to support the ISS after the Space Shuttle is retired. The first demonstration missions are planned for 2010.

Since the first launch of the Functional Cargo Block in 1988, 80 flights and sixteen countries worked to advance the ISS’s construction. The first living quarters were in the Service Module (SM) or Zvezda (Star), built in Russia.  It was launched in July, 2000. Today it allows the ground flight controllers remote command capabilities. 

The station has been built in many separate pieces over more than a decade. The size of the elements was dictated by the Space Shuttle, which serves as the primary “moving van” for the ISS.  The ISS is basically a series of modules.  Three are used as laboratories.  The others provide living quarters and storage space. Trusses support the solar array panels which convert sunlight into DC power for the station’s use.

Three U.S. modules, called nodes, connect various elements of the ISS.  Node 1, also called Unity, connects the U.S. and Russian segments.  It was installed in 1998 and provides connections to the Z1 Truss, U.S. Lab Module, Airlock, Node 3, and the PMAs.  Depending on the mission, Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) logistics carriers may be connected at Node 1 during some Shuttle visits.

Node 2, Harmony, is a “utility hub,” providing air, electrical power, water, and other systems essential to support life on the ISS. It was installed in October of 2007 and connects the U.S. Destiny and European Columbus laboratories.  It will connect the Japanese Kibo laboratory when it is installed.

Node 3 is scheduled for installation in December 2009. It will connect to Unity’s earth-facing side and will eventually take over many of the Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS). It will also provide an attachment point for a PMA, to which the Space Shuttle or CEV can dock.  The Cupola will be berthed on Node 3’s forward port. The Cupola has seven windows and allows crew members to observe operations outside the station.

The ISS contains various research facilities that are housed either on an International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) or on an active rack isolation system (ARIS).  The ARIS is designed to minimize vibration.  Experiments are also mounted on the outside of the ISS on the U.S. or Russian Trusses or the Columbus module.  In the future the Japanese experiment module (JAM) exposed facility (EF) may be used. Special racks, called Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station racks (EXPRESS) Logistics Carrier (ELC), are used for payloads. These may be mounted on several truss locations using the Station’s robotic arm.

Destiny was the Station’s first research module, berthed in February 2001.  It can house 24 equipment racks.  Currently about half of these racks are used by ISS systems.  The remaining racks are used for scientific research. Life science experiments are conducted at the Human Research Facility (HRF).  Destiny also houses a Microgravity Science Glovebox, and a minus eighty-degree lab freezer to provide refrigerated storage and fast-freezing of samples. 

In February of 2008, the Columbus Research Laboratory was attached to the ISS.  It is a pressurized lab that is permanently attached to Harmony.

The Japanese Experiment Module is called Kibo (Hope).  It will be berthed to Node 2 in May of 2009.  Connected to Kibo is an exposed facility (EF) located outside the pressurized environment and a Pressurized Module (PM) used for microgravity experiments. 

More than 170 experiments have been conducted abroad the ISS. Recent experiments aboard the space station have led to advanced cell imaging techniques, refined infrared imaging allowing the users to differentiate the intensity of heat signals, and improved air filters. Research has continued on plant growth and the use of plants to improve air quality and clean wastewater. ISS research into atomic oxygen has led to advances in removal of bacterial contaminants from surgical implants.  New recycling technology, such as the water regeneration system, is also tested here. Eventually such systems may be used on the Moon and Mars. Most recently it was discovered that a decrease in gravity decreases the virulence of Salmonella, probably due to a decrease in fluid shear.  It is hoped that these findings can lead to new ways of combating food-borne illnesses on Earth.  In addition to the research, crew members have taken more than 200,000 images of Earth, including photographs of hurricane and tsunami damage.

One of the biggest challenges faced by the crew is working in microgravity. The lack of gravity makes even simply chores more difficult, requiring the creative use of duct tape, Velcro or other straps to keep tools and supplies anchored. Crew members exercise two hours daily with resistance bands, a treadmill and a bicycle to counteract the effects of microgravity on their bones and circulation systems.  Crew members are also exposed to slightly more radiation than they would be on Earth. 

Of the many experiments conducted on the ISS, perhaps the most important one is the construction of the ISS itself. The crewmembers are researchers who also have to manage living day-to-day in a partially constructed home. And in their spare time, they have to finish constructing the house. When completed in 2010 the space station will be the largest human-made object to ever orbit the Earth.  It will be about 243 ft (74m) long, 361 feet (110 m) wide with a mass of 925,000 lbs (419,600 kg).  The pressurized volume will be approximately 33,023 ft³ (935 m³).  It will be capable of supporting a six person crew.  The astronauts, engineers and space agencies will have successfully integrated components built around the world over a period of years in the most unforgiving location we have ever encountered.  Overcoming the obstacles of politics, science, communication and logistics is the greatest achievement of the men and women involved in the endeavor.

The WISE Mission

The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer mission will provide a vast amount of knowledge about our solar system, the Milky Way and the universe around us. An unmanned satellite carrying an infrared-sensitive telescope, WISE will study asteroids, the coolest and dimmest stars, and the most visible galaxies.

The WISE telescope and detectors are kept at a very cold temperature (below -430 degrees F) by a cryostat, which is like an ice chest filled with hydrogen instead of ice. This enables it to see objects that are at room temperature since they emit infrared radiation. The satellite will also have solar panels to provide the electricity it needs to operate, and will always be pointed toward the sun and away from the Earth. WISE will orbit several hundred miles above the dividing line between night and day on our planet, traveling from the North Pole to the equator down to the South Pole and back.

After six months, the WISE will have observed and photographed the entire sky in its path. A small mirror scanning in the opposite direction will capture images onto an infrared sensitive digital camera that will take pictures every 11 seconds. By the end of the mission, the satellite will have taken almost 1,500,000 pictures that will be downloaded by radio transmission four times per day to computers on the ground. This information will be invaluable for putting together an atlas covering our entire celestial sphere with a list of all detected objects. It will find the closest stars to the sun, the most luminous galaxies in the universe, and any Main Belt asteroids larger than three km. Scientists will also be able to learn more about the evolution of planetary debris and the history of star formation in our galaxies. The WISE is scheduled for launch in November, 2009.